Qajar Dynasty; A Glimpse into the Constitutional Revolution of Persia (1905-1907)

The 20th century dawned upon Persia, today known as Iran, amidst a whirlwind of social and political change. The once-mighty Qajar dynasty, ruling since the late 18th century, found itself grappling with internal dissent and external pressures. This volatile mix ultimately led to one of the most significant events in Iranian history: the Constitutional Revolution.

This revolution was not a sudden eruption but rather a slow burn fueled by decades of discontent. The Qajar rulers, known for their lavish lifestyles and autocratic tendencies, had failed to modernize Persia’s political and social institutions. A lack of representation and widespread poverty created fertile ground for dissatisfaction among various segments of society. The burgeoning merchant class, increasingly exposed to Western ideas of democracy and individual rights, played a pivotal role in igniting the movement.

The Spark: The Tobacco Protest (1890-1892)

To understand the Constitutional Revolution, we need to rewind to the late 19th century. In 1890, the Qajar government granted a concession to a British company, granting them exclusive rights to Persia’s tobacco industry. This move sparked outrage among the Persian people, who saw it as an infringement on their national sovereignty and economic interests.

Religious leaders, merchants, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens united against this foreign encroachment. The Tobacco Protest (1890-1892), spearheaded by the charismatic cleric Sheikh Fazlollah Nuri, marked a turning point in Persian history. Through boycotts, protests, and petitions, they forced the government to cancel the concession, demonstrating the power of collective action and setting a precedent for future resistance.

Enter Mirza Malkam Khan: A Visionary Advocate for Constitutionalism

Mirza Malkam Khan, an influential intellectual and diplomat who had traveled extensively in Europe, became a vocal proponent of constitutional reforms during this period. He argued that Persia needed a modern government based on the principles of popular sovereignty, individual rights, and a written constitution to limit the absolute power of the Shah (King).

Malkam Khan’s ideas resonated with a growing number of Persians, particularly among educated professionals and merchants. They formed secret societies and clandestine publications to spread awareness about constitutionalism and mobilize public opinion.

The Constitutional Revolution Erupts: 1905-1907

Building upon the momentum created by the Tobacco Protest and Malkam Khan’s writings, a nationwide movement demanding a constitution erupted in 1905. In August of that year, intellectuals and merchants in Tehran formed the “Society for the Propagation of Constitutional Principles,” which quickly gained widespread support across Persia.

The movement reached its peak when thousands of Persians from different social classes converged on the capital city. They demanded a meeting with Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, the reigning monarch. Under immense pressure, the Shah reluctantly agreed to establish a constitution and convene an elected parliament, known as the Majlis.

**A Period of Tumult and Triumph: The First Parliament (Majlis) **

The first Majlis convened in Tehran on October 7, 1906. This momentous event marked a crucial step toward modernizing Persia’s political system and empowering its citizens. The newly elected parliamentarians represented diverse backgrounds: merchants, intellectuals, religious figures, and even some tribal leaders.

However, the path to constitutionalism was not without its bumps. Conservative elements within the Qajar court and the clergy resisted the reforms and sought to undermine the Majlis’ authority. This led to a series of power struggles between the pro-constitutionalist forces and the traditionalists.

The Shah’s Counterattack: The Bombardment of the Majlis

In 1907, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, influenced by conservative advisors, attempted to dissolve the Majlis and restore his absolute power. He ordered the bombardment of the parliament building in Tehran, a brazen act that shocked the nation and galvanized public opposition.

This attack backfired spectacularly, igniting widespread protests across Persia. The people rose up in defiance of the Shah’s authoritarianism. Faced with overwhelming popular pressure, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Ali Shah.

The Legacy of the Constitutional Revolution: Paving the Way for Modern Iran

Despite its setbacks and eventual suppression by Mohammad Ali Shah, the Constitutional Revolution had a profound impact on Persia’s history. It marked a turning point in the nation’s political consciousness and laid the groundwork for future democratic movements. The ideas of constitutionalism, individual rights, and popular sovereignty planted seeds that would eventually blossom into the modern Iranian republic.

The revolution also highlighted the power of civil society in challenging authoritarian rule. The collaboration between intellectuals, merchants, religious figures, and ordinary citizens demonstrated the collective strength needed to bring about meaningful change. While the Constitutional Revolution ultimately failed to achieve its full goals, it left a lasting legacy that continues to inspire Iranians today.